Vākyaprayogāḥ-Syntax
Sanskrit Sentences can be of three kinds, those in the Active Voice, those in the Passive and those that are impersonal, depending respectively on whether the Subject or the Object is accorded a predominant position or whether the verb is Intransitive. Technically, these three types are known as karttari prayogaḥ, karmaṇi prayogaḥ and bhhāve prayogaḥ. Alternatively, they arecalled karttṛvācyaḥ, karmavācẏaḥ and bhāvavācyaḥ, meaning sentences in which respectively the subject, the object and the idea are directly expressed.
Karttari prayogaḥ - The usage where the karttā or the agent of the action, i.e., the Subject, is given predominance is, obviously, called the karttari prayogaḥ. In such a usage, the word denoting the Subject takes the nominative case suffix, that denoting the object will get the accusative case suffix and the Person and Number of the verb will be in accordance with those of the subject. The conjugation may be of the ātmanepada or the parasmaipada type depending upon the nature of the action and the verbal root. Eg.- bālaḥ pāṭhaṃ paṭhati - the boy reads the lesson - the subject here, is 'the boy'- bālaḥ- in the Nominative case, singular; the object is 'the lesson' - pāṭhaṃ - Accusative singular and the verb is 'reads' - paṭhati - Third person, singular.
The Active Voice is also of three kinds - the Transitive - one where object exists, the Bi- Transitive where Dual-Object exists and the Intransitive where there is no object. These kinds are respectively known as the Sakarmaka, the Dvikarmaka and the Akarmaka. Thus it is said -
karttṛkarmakriyāyuktaḥ prayogaḥ syātsakarmakaḥ |
akarmakaḥ karmaśūnyaḥ karmadvandvau dvikarmakaḥ ||
Complete with Subject, Object and Verb,
know that usage as Transitive
Intransitive is Objectless
and two objects mean Bi-Transitive
Verbal roots with the following meanings can be said to be intransitive -
lajjāsattāsthitijāgaraṇaṃ vṛddhikṣayabhayajīvitamaraṇam |
śayanakrīḍārucidīptyarthaṃ dhātugaṇaṃ tamakarmakamāhuḥ ||
Know thee, as intransitive those with these senses
the verbal roots, to be shy or just to be, to stay
To wake, to sleep, to grow, to decay
to fear, to like, to die, or to shine
also to live, or then to play
Examples -
Intransitive - puṣpaṃ vikasati - the flower blooms
Transitive - devo bālaṃ rakṣati-Lord protects the boy
Bi-Transitive - chātraḥ adhyāpakaṃ saṃśayaṃ pṛcchati- Pupil asks Teacher the doubt.
More Examples of Active Voice with transitive verbs:-
śiṣyaḥ vedaṃ śṛṇoti Disciple listens to the Veda
puruṣāḥ āmrāṇi khādanti Men eat mangoes
sītā kathāṃ vadati Sītā narrates a story
bālāḥ tārāḥ gaṇayanti Boys count the stars
ahaṃ prātaḥ āpaṇaṃ gacchāmi I visit the market in the morning
puttraḥ vaidyaśāstram apaṭhat Son studied Medicine
chāttrāḥ puraskārān prāpsyanti The students will receive prizes
saḥ sadā īśvaraṃ vandate He always worships God
yūyaṃ vyāyāmaṃ kuruta Do exercise, ye all !
janāḥ mittrāṇi na vismareyuḥ Let people not forget friends
tvam udyamena kīrttiṃ labhasva Achieve fame, ye, through hard work !
vayaṃ nadīṃ tarāmaḥ We cross the river
rāmaḥ vane kaṣṭam asahata Rāma endured hardship in the forest
tvaṃ śīghraṃ gṛhaṃ gaccha Reach home quickly, O you !
rājānaḥ dharmaṃ na parityajeyuḥ Let the kings not abandon righteousness
ahaṃ śikṣakasya vācamanuvarttiṣye I will follow the words of the Teacher
sā vedikāyāṃ nṛttaṃ kuryāt She may perform dance on the stage
devadattaḥ annaṃ pacatu Let Devadatta cook the rice
tantuvāyaḥ paṭamakuruta The weaver made the cloth
munayaḥ śrīnārāyaṇaṃ stavaiḥ abhajanta The ascetics served śrīnārāyaṇa with praises
rāmalakṣmaṇau viśvāmitrasya yajñam arakṣatām Rāma &Lakṣmaṇa protected the sacrifice of Viśvāmitra
tau vane nūtanakusumāni apaśyatām They both saw new flowers in the forest
guravaḥ pratidinaṃ svādhyāyaṃ kurvanti Preceptors perform self-study everyday
bhavantaḥ viṣayaṃ samyagavagacchantu You all may please understand the matter clearly.
Examples of Bi-transitive verbs
mātā taṇḍulān odanaṃ pacati Mother cooks meals of the rice-grains
daridrāḥ dhanikān dhanamayācanta The poor begged money of the rich
pathikaḥ āpaṇikaṃ mārgamapṛcchat The travellor asked the way, of the shopkeeper
gopālaḥ gāṃ dugdhaṃ dogdhi The cowherd milked the cow for milk
Rāmaḥ ajam grāmam nayati Rāma takes the goat to the village
Note:- Bi-transitive verbs are verbs governing two objects - one principal and the other secondary. Verbs conveying the sense of the following roots are generally recognized as governing two objects -
duhyācpacdaṇḍrudhipracchiśāsujimathmuṣām |
karmayuksyādakathitaṃ tathā syānnīhṛkṛṣvahām ||
The roots duh,yāc,pac,daṇḍ,rudh,pracch,śās,ji,math and muṣ
otherwise not mentioned by way of any case - relations
may be as the object, as also nī,hṛ,kṛṣ vah
and roots with these senses
It may also be noted that in Passive construction, in the case of the first twelve roots enumerated above, the secondary object is put in the nominative case whereaswith the last four, it is the principal object that is put in the nominative case, the other object in both instances remaining the same as in Active voice.
Karmaṇi prayogaḥ - Passive Voice
In this usage, the object gets predominance. Thereby, the word denoting the object is placed in the Nominative and that representing the Subject is put in the instrumental. The verb follows the object in Person and Number and the conjugation is always in the ātmanepada. Eg. - ’bālaiḥ pāṭhaḥ paṭhyate’ - the lesson is read by the boy - Here, the word for the subject, bāla, takes the third case, that for the object, pāṭha, takes the first case and the verb 'paṭhyate', follows 'pāṭha' in Person and Number and is conjugated in the ātmanepada. The infix 'yak', of which only 'ya' remains is also added to the verb in laṭ, laṅ, loṭ and liṅ lakāras , suc as, paṭh+ya+te=paṭhyate, vand+ya+te=vandyate.
The examples given above for the Active Voice are now shown in the Passive -
śiṣyeṇa vedaḥ śrūyate The Veda is listened to by the disciple
puruṣaiḥ āmrāṇi khādyante Mangoes are eaten by the men
sītayā kathā ucyate The story is narrated by Sītā
bālaiḥ tārāḥ gaṇyante The stars are counted by the boys
mayā prātaḥ āpaṇaḥ gamyate The market is visited by me in the morning putreṇa vaidyaśāstamapaṭhyata Medicine was studied by the son
chātraiḥ puraskārāḥ prāpsyante The prizes will be received by the students
tena sadā īśvaraḥ vandyate God is always worshipped by him
yuṣmābhiḥ vyāyāmaḥ kriyatām Let exercise be done by you all!
janaiḥ mitrāṇi na vismaryeran Let not friends be forgotten by people !
tvayā udyamena kīrttiḥ labhyatām May fame be achieved by you through hard work
asmābhiḥ nadī tīryate The river is crossed by us
rāmeṇa vane kaṣṭam asahyata Hardship was endured by Rāma in the forest
tvayā śīghraṃ gṛhaṃ gamyatām May home be reached by you quickly
rājabhiḥ dharmaḥ na parityajyeta May righteousness not be abandoned by kings
mayā śikṣakasya vāk anuvarttiṣyate The Teacher's word will be followed by me
tayā vedikāyāṃ nṛttaṃ kriyeta May the dance be performed by her on stage
devadattena annaṃ pacyatām Let the rice be cooked by Devadatta
tantuvāyena paṭaḥ akriyata the cloth was made by the weaver
munibhiḥ śrīnārāyaṇaḥ stavaiḥ abhajyata śrīnārāyaṇa was served with praises by the asetics
rāmalakṣmaṇābhyāṃ viśvāmitrasya yajñaḥ arakṣyata Viśvāmitra's sacrifice was protected by Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa
tābhyāṃ vane nūtanakusumāni adṝśyanta New flowers were seen by them both in the forest
gurubhiḥ pratidinaṃ svādhyāyaḥ kriyate The self-study is performed everyday by the preceptors
bhavadbhiḥ viṣayaḥ samyagavagamyatām Let the matter be please understood clearly by you all
Examples of Bi-transitive verbs
mātrā taṇḍulāḥ odanaṃ pacyante The rice-grains are cooked into meals by mother
daridraiḥ dhanikāḥ dhanamayācyanta The rich were begged for money
by the poor
pathikena āpaṇikaḥ mārgamapṛcchyata The shop-keeper was asked the way,
by the travellor
gopālena gauḥ dugdhaṃ duhyate The cow was milked by the cowherd for milk
Rāmeṇa ajaḥ grāmam nīyate The goat is taken to the village by Rāma
NoteMore information is added in the English version about verbs governing two objects, as well as intransitive verbs, than is given in the Sanskrit version.
Examples of Intransitive verbs
ahaṃ prātaḥ saptahorāparyantaṃ svapimi - I sleep till seven o'clock in the morning
bālakaḥ prātaḥ acirād uttiṣṭhati The child wakes early in the morning
śiśuḥ ajñātavyaktiṃ dṛṣṭvā lajjate The baby shies away from the stranger
pustakam atra asti The book is here
saḥ sahasā jāgartti He wakes suddenly
The above sentences do not have any object.
Bhāve prayogaḥ - Impersonal
When the idea in the sentence is sought to be given more importance than the subject, the usage becomes Impersonal. This usually pertains to intransitive verbs, and hence, there is no object involved. Like in the Passive Voice, here too, the Subject is accorded the instrumental case but the verb always takes the third Person Singular form. the conjugation is in the ātmanepada and like the Passive, there is the infix 'yak' of which only the 'ya' remains. Eg.- ’puṣpeṇa vikasyate’ - here, the subject 'puṣpa' takes the Instrumental case and the verb 'vikasyate’ is conjugated in the third person singular. There is no object in the sentence.
More Examples
karttari- Active bhāve - Impersonal
bālakaḥ prātaḥ uttiṣṭhati bālakena prātaḥ utthīyate
The little boy gets up in the morning It is gotten up in the morning by the little boy
mātā vilambena svapiti mātrā vilambena supyate
Mother sleeps late It is slept late by mother
saḥ kaṭe upaviśati tena kaṭe upaviśyate
He sits on the mat The mat is sat on by him
mama puttrī vaidyā bhavati mama puttryā vaidyayā bhūyate
My daughter is a Doctor It is been Doctor by my daughter
vṛkṣāt phalāni patanti vṛkṣāt phalaiḥ patyate
Fruits fall from the tree It is being fallen by the fruits from the tree
vane vyāghraḥ uccaiḥ garjati vane vyāghreṇa uccaiḥ garjyate
The tiger growls loudly in the forest it is growled loudly by the tiger in the forest
abhinetāraḥ vedikāyāṃ nṛtyanti abhinetṛbhiḥ vedikāyāṃ nṛtyate
The actors perform dance on the stage Dance is performed by the actors on the stage
te vijayinaḥ bhavanti taiḥ vijayibhiḥ bhūyate
They are successful It is being successful by them
tvaṃ śīghraṃ vardhase tvayā śīghraṃ vṛdhyate
You do grow fast Growing is done by you fast
ahamasmin bhavane vasāmi mayāsmin bhavane uṣyate
I live in this building this building is lived in by me
(It is being lived by me in this building)
bālāḥ krīḍāṅagaṇe krīḍanti bālaiḥ krīḍāṅgaṇe krīḍyate
Boys play in the playground It is being played by the boys in the playground
(The playground is being played in by the boys)